The Development of Presidental Power in the United States Research Paper

The Development of Presidental Power in the United States - Research Paper Example Decisive issues in the history of the United States, such as territorial expansion and slavery, have played a crucial role in determining the scope and nature of expanding presidential power through the centuries. In order to understand the rise of presidential power, one must first set a standard to which that rise is measured. That standard is the first president of the United States, George Washington, who was inaugurated on April 30, 1789. In many ways, Washington set the standards for his successors: setting up a cabinet system, giving an inaugural address, and serving as a two-term president. He took over the presidency of a country emerging fresh from its quest for independence, and he immediately faced the problems of any newly established nation. Recognizing the need to sign major treaties for foreign powers and to ratify the Bill of Rights, Washington signed a large slate of legislative measures that set up channels of commerce, state militias, the judiciary, the United Sta tes Mint, and the first immigration laws. Each of these acts stood in concert with the newly signed Constitution, which Washington used as justification for his veto of the Apportionment Act of 1792 (Washington). By all accounts, Washington represents the classic president with his respect for the precise limits of his power. Washington held federalist sentiments, aligned for the most part with his Secretary of the Treasury, cabinet member, and friend Alexander Hamilton. Hamilton’s intellectual influence on Washington was so great that Washington’s famous Farewell Address is thought to have been crafted, at least in part, by Hamilton’s hand. The federalists like Washington and Hamilton viewed states rights as less important and a hindrance to an effective, efficient central state. The Articles of Confederation, which had been discarded in favor of the Constitution, stressed the value of states’ rights above a central state but to a degree that made the fe deral government incapable of carrying out its necessary, executive functions. In his Farewell Address, Washington makes it clear that a stronger central government, at the expense of states’ rights, is a necessary movement toward reducing deadly factions in American government. To that end, Washington urges support for the new constitutional government. A weak government, he warns, is one that cannot defend itself from factions, or enforce its laws, or protect the rights of citizens, which is implied as an argument against overemphasizing the sovereignty of individual states. After the presidency of John Adams, another federalist, Thomas Jefferson became the third president in March 1801. As a Democrat-Republican with anti-federalist leanings, Jefferson wrote in favor of state rights, believing that the size of the federal government ought not to be maximized (Schlesinger 23). Instead, he thought, states’ ought to have a greater degree of sovereignty because they are more responsive to diverse groups of people. Looking at the divergent interests of Southerners and Northerners, even in the early 1800s, Jefferson identified a potential source of conflict—a factionalism that might emerge on the highest level of government. Accordingly, he endorsed a political

Do we have a fair taxation system Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Do we have a fair taxation system - Essay Example Nevertheless, the main system used in most nations is the progressive tax which emphasizes on paying as one earns (Christia, 2006). Each system of taxation is fair and unfair in its own way. Progressive, regressive, and lump-sum taxation systems are unfair while proportional taxation system is very fair when applied in obtaining revenue. Progressive tax system is where the effective tax rate increases as the amount affected by the rate increases. In most cases progressive tax system is known as the PAYE (Pay as you earn). This means that the more a person earns the more tax he or she pays (Hatzipanayotou, 2004). With progressive tax system those who work hard to earn more are likely to be charged more in terms of tax and this is unfair. Progressive tax rate encourages laziness and discourages hard work. On a different perspective regressive tax system is the opposite of progressive. In this regards with decreases effective rate the amount affected increases on the other hand (Christia, 2006). This is also an unfair system of taxation as those who have will pay less as compared to the poor. In addition, this means that the more a person earns the less he or she pays in form of tax and the less a person earns the more he or she pays in form of tax (Freedman & Chamberlain, 2007). Lump-sum tax system on the other hand d oes not give priority on the efforts placed by individuals in developing their nations. Therefore, these three systems of taxation are unfair. Proportional taxation system emphasizes on the effort placed by individual citizens in trying to build their countries. In this taxation system, the effective tax rate is fixed irrespective of the amount being taxed (Slemrod, 2000). Therefore, the more a person earns the more he or she takes home with the tax rate being the same. Schmidt (2000) points out that when one is lazy hence

Final report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 2

Final report - Essay Example rban forests sustainability largely depends on the people’s attitudes, character and activities on urban trees such as planting, land development, plant injury and pruning. Users of urban forests include the public, private enterprises and local economic groups among others. Management bodies formulate appropriate policies; apportion appropriate resources and manpower to implement urban forest projects. Managers must consider how to integrate public safety of urban forested areas and open spaces into the planning and management of urban forests. Tree selection is critical to ensuring that urban forests are diverse, healthy, and adapted to the urban environment, Environmental Commissioner of Ontario (2005). Urban forestry is a form of biophysical urban forest ecosystems management which is both dynamic and complex. It comprises of all trees found within a city, amidst large human populations and artificial infrastructure. Reports in Arborday (nd), indicate that this practice has a variety of benefits which benefit the lives of all urban dwellers. The focus of managing urban forests is on acquisition of non- tangible benefits. Sustainable urban forest management decisions focus on human safety, health, and psycho – socio benefits and tree disturbance by engineering works. These benefits include social, aesthetic, environmental and economic benefits. With the tremendous growth of urban areas and a subsequent high population growth outside the urban areas, urban forestry forms a fundamental basis of human livelihood. Rapid urban growth poses a threat to both the ancient natural forests as well as the urban forests. Urbanization causes a potential risk of changes in the social syste ms and attitudes, with a notion of less environmental concern and consumption behavior. Unfortunately, local planning procedures fail to consider the impact of urbanization in regards to community development. This causes a challenge to the local management agencies and forestry

Performance management and rewards Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Performance management and rewards - Essay Example extremely essential to retain the human resources of the organization so as to enhance its productivity and brand value in the market among other rival players. This essay is divided into four phrases mainly highlighting the importance of retention as well as the ways to increase the rate of retention of the employees in the organization. Along with this, the retention strategy is also devised in order to reduce the ratio of attrition of the Hertfordshire-based SME so as to amplify its reputation and efficiency in the market among others. It is the process by which, employees are retained within the organization for longer period of time so as to enhance its image and productivity. Due to which, retention is recognised as the most important tactic of talent management process. So, it is offered higher attention by the organizational entrepreneurs in this competitive age (Cannon & McGee, 2011). Retention of an employee within an organization is essential as it acts as its driving force. This is because it helps in introduction of varied types of inventive products and services thereby satisfying the changing requirements of the customers. As a result of which, it enhances the reliability and trust of the customers towards the brand thereby amplifying its position and dominance in the market among others (Finnegan, 2010, pp. 556-561). Not only this, employee retention also gears the goodwill of the organization to a significant extent thereby amplifying its cost of profit margin and net income. In addition, employee re tention also helps in regaining the efficiency and effectiveness of the organization, long term success and profitability and improvement of turnovers. Thus it might be stated that retention of employees might enhance customer satisfaction, improve total sales cost and amplify returns of the Hertfordshire-based SME. The term retention seems easy, but it’s extremely hard. This is mainly due to various reasons presented. Lack of appreciation is one of

Revenue allocation Essay Example for Free

Revenue allocation Essay Revenue means income. Allocation means to divide. Revenue allocation is defined as the division of available resources within an organisation or company. At a broader level, it is the process of assigning a cost to the amount of services and products generated. Government revenue is obtained from taxes, licenses and fees and allocated to public facilities. Because of the current revenue allocation formula In Nigeria, though there is a great deal of wealth In the country from the oil Industry, 64% of the population lives below the poverty line. While the federal government akes over half of all the money In the Nigerian federal account, little has been done to promote welfare and development projects that would benefit the general public. According to the Nigerian Revenue Moblllzatlon Allocation and Fiscal Commission, a new revenue allocation formula Is In the works, but It remains to be seen If these measures are enough to remedy the problem. When Nigerias maverick CBN Governor recently In an Interview Justified the sadlstlc, sub-human and horrific terrorist activities going on In the North of Nigeria by attributing It to the fact that 011 evenue was being unfairly shared on the basis of derivation primarily instead of population which is the Norths competitive advantage, I was shocked that such a flawed argument could come from such a respected Nigerian whose controversial reform of the Nigerian banking sector has won him praises and awards locally and internationally. SLS traced the root cause of terrorism in the North to grinding poverty in the North which he claims was caused by Nigerias use of the derivation principle instead of population as the primary yardstick for allocating revenue among he states. He believes that this preference for the derivation principle has short- changed the North and disadvantaged it. I totally disagree with SLS and will articulate in this article my reasons for disagreeing with him and my suggestions on the way forward for Nigeria using history as a guide to arrive at what I believe is a Just solution that will be favourable to all.

The Impact of Modernization on Socialization

The Impact of Modernization on Socialization A Leader is a person who guide and lead the team to success. As a leader, he or she must have a clear vision and vivid picture of where to go and a firm grasp on what success look like and how to achieve it. A leader must also be able to communicate with his or her follower on her vision and must be able to persuade them to buy into his or her idea. Moreover, he or she must also communicate passionately and clearly so that it can motivate them and direct them more efficient. Besides that, as a leader, he or she must have a responsibility on his or her follower and to make sure that all his or her follower share the common goal. Modernization is conceived in several ways. One of them is through an increased knowledge in science and technology, modernization as a process of change in the social structure and social system. Besides, it is also defined as a movement of transition from traditional society of religion, magic, and superstition to a modern and postmodern society. It is free from religious matrix and traditional norms. Furthermore, the West explains modernization as a process of mobilization, differentiation, industrialization, and secularization, which can reach high economic growth, stable democracy, and a capitalist economy. Modernization has brought to advance of human lifestyle and it makes human life easier. Modernization is not a temporal concept since the social keep on changing. It is a result of enlightenment which values reason, freedom and science, in relation to different aspects of society, so that modernization progress all the time. During modernization, there is universal education and increase of literacy. Democratization in political system and education has been achieved. There are also emergence of rationalization and bureaucratization in social organization of work. Socialization Socialization is conceived as a general process of gaining culture; anthropologists use the term enculturation for the process of being socialized to a particular culture. A human infant is born without any culture. Humans parents, teachers, friends and circumferences transform them into cultural and socially adept animals. Socialization helps people to learn the language of culture they are born, or the role they are to play in life. They will learn about the occupational roles that their society has store for them. For an example, boys learn how to be sons, brothers, friends, husbands, and fathers. During the socialization process, human learn to adopt their cultures norms, which mean the conceptions of appropriate and expected behavior that are held by most members of the society. There are two types of socialization, which are natural socialization and planned socialization. When infants and youngsters explore, play and discover the social world around them, it is called as natural socialization. Whereas when others take actions designed to teach or train people from infancy on, it is called as planned socialization. Both of these types of socialization can have good or bad features. Most people try to gain experience in life. This helps to influence their own socialization. The more we learn about the socialization process, the more effective we can be in managing our future learning in the ways that it will help us most. To gain uniformity within a society, there must be a successful socialization. People will share the same beliefs and expectations if all of them receive the same socialization. Discussion The Impact of Modernization on Socialization In the past, there was a bias between male and female, especially in China country. Males were provided educational chance when they are young. They could study in school meanwhile female are not allowed to study at all. In China before modernization, female are only allowed to do house chores and help around their family. Due to the socialization in the past, they are restricted them from getting the chance to expose themselves in education, business and politics. Besides, female are always being treated as servant or a baby producer. They have to obey what the male said. Furthermore, a female must listen to the male order and they are not allowed to fight back. Once she is born, she has to obey to her father. After married, she has to obey to her husband, then to her son. The changes of modernization has influence processes of socialization, such as learning how to think, how to feel, how to be acceptable, how to be moral and how to be masculine and feminine. This is because modernization had brought lots education opportunities and working opportunities thus women are allowed to work and pursue their own dream as during the industrialization, there is a sudden shortage of labor. Thus woman can join in the men and work independently. After the process of modernization, human think differently. They are more open minded and the bias in between male and female is dribble away. Females no longer listen to their father when choosing their husband who never meet up before. China nowadays is in progress. People pay full concern to their children; no matter they are male or female. Most of them embrace feminism. Female has already got an equal treat as male. Females are also having the chance to study in school. Most of the parents will sent their children, no matter boy or girl to learn extra acqierement, such as drawing, dancing and arts. There is also gender discrimination in India few decades ago. Female infanticide reflects the statement of low status accorded to women. It is proved by the most brutal and destructive action of anti-female bias that pervade patriarchal societies. The phenomena of sex-selective abortion, which targets female fetuses almost exclusively and neglect of girl children is appeared. According to John-Thor Dahlburg, In rural India, the centuries-old practice of female infanticide can still be considered a wise course of action. (Dahlburg, Where killing baby girls is no big sin,  The Los Angeles Times  [in  The Toronto Star, February 28, 1994.]) Based on census statistics, in 1901, there were 972 females for every 1000 males. In the year 1993, the gender imbalance has tilted to 929 females per 1000 males. In the nearly 300 poor hamlets of the Usilampatti area of Tamil Nadu, as many as 196 girls died under suspicious circumstances, such as fed dry, made swallow poisonous powdered fertili zer and smothered with a wet towel, strangled or allowed to starve to death. In India bias against females is still related to the fact that Sons are called upon to provide the income; they are the ones who do most of the work in the fields. Therefore, sons are looked as a type of insurance. This shows that, the high value given to males decreases the value given to females. (Marina Porras,  Female Infanticide and Foeticide.)  Furthermore, India is a heartland of sex-selective abortion. In 1974, Amniocentesis was introduced to ascertain birth defects in a sample population by medical entrepreneurs. So, a spate of sex-selective abortions was followed. Due to the modernization, the phenomena of bury baby have been banned by India. It becomes an illegal legislation. So, modernization has change peoples mindset from traditional to modern. Nowadays, the status of female is equally to male and people are starting to accept that female can also perform any job that a male can perform. Moreover as India become more and more modern, it affect the socialization so much that in the year 1971, India Prime Minister was a female name Indhira Gandhi. From here we can see that through modernization the social structure of the India was also starting to change. Modernization has changes in reshaping economic, political and social life. It is because it not only helps explain economic, social and political change, but it also provide most efforts at prediction. For example, tends to bring increasing urbanization, growing occupational specialization, and higher levels of formal education in any society that undertakes it (Lerner, 1958; Deutsch, 1964). Modernization linked to a wide range of other cultural changes. Although modernization syndrome of changes becomes probable but social change is not linear when societies move from an agrarian mode to an industrial mode. Women in Management is a current social issue. According to Jewell in 1977, the feminist movement, anti-sexual discrimination legislation, and predictions of shortages in managerial talent during the last decade have caused to increased pressure for more women participate in leadership roles during the 1970s. However, in 1978, Malabre said, the progress of integrating women into management positions has achieved limited success. A lot of people posit that women lack the leadership attributes and abilities required for managerial positions. Those holding this type of stereotypic view perceive women as ineffective leaders in jobs incongruent with females more traditionally passive sex role. (Bryce, 1970; Cecil, Paul, Olins, 1973; Hobart Harrick, 1977i Peters, Terborg, Jacobs 1974; Terborg et al., 1974). Bartols findings showed that leader behavior can be influenced by other factors than gender. Based on Lockheed and Hall (1976) studies, men emerged as leaders much more often than female, but there was no different in male and female leadership style. The Bales scoring technique, indicated that women releasing more tension and being more communicative, there was no significant difference between democratic and autocratic leader behavior patterns. Nowadays, women and men are equal, no matter where they are. The modernization process brings more job opportunities to human. Through this, women have more chances to exhibit their ability in working area. The limitation of women to be success is being narrow. It is because peoples mindsets have changed due to modernization towards socialization. Sex Differences and Inequality According to a study by Alice Eagly, from the Northwestern University in 2007, she say that there is a Psychology Prejudice against women as leader. She stated that woman is being perceived as nice, friendly, socially skilled meanwhile men are dominant, assertive (behavioral skill which is linked to self esteem and considered a important communication skill), tough-minded and take charge. Thus this had lead us to the term Glass Ceiling where woman is harasses and limit by the society on the job that they can do. Moreover, the term Glass Ceiling is also use to describe invisible barriers where minorities and women are prevented from advancing to the management position in organization and corporation. Moreover, if we see from the nature perspective, we can see that female is the weaker sex and male dominance is just a biological manifestation. For example, the body structure of a male is stronger than women thus man often takes up the job as a leader and protects women. Since ancient time, hunting and processing hard raw material as strictly male activities whereas female will just cook, wash clothes and do the entire house chore (Peggy Reeves Sanday). Besides that Murdock and Provost suggest that female is attached to the burden of household and burden for pregnancy and infant care. Thus female was left out and do not have the chance to become a leader. This make them to become and not born as a weaker sex due to the socialization in the past. In fact during the past few years, there is more and more female leader out there in the world. Feminism Feminism is a doctrine that women should have the same economic, social, and political equality with those of men. Feminism is distinguished between sex and gender. Sex, whether male and female, is about physical differences between sexes, while gender, whether masculine or feminine, is about characteristics of behavior, psychology or demeanor, which wished to claim are culturally constructed and conditioned and so ultimately arbitrary. The moral and political program of gender feminism was essentially to rescind gender differences. It makes men and women would end up living the same kinds of lives, doing the same kinds of things, and perhaps even  looking  pretty much the same in unisex grooming and clothing. According to F.Carolyn Graglia in 1998, housewives, not men, were the prey in feminisms sights when Kate Millett decreed in 1969 that the family must go. Feminists do not speak for traditional women. Men cannot know this, however, unless we tell them how we feel about them, our children, and our role in the home. Men must understand that our feelings towards them and our children are derided by feminists and have earned us their enmity. Whether or not this understanding garners mens support, traditional women must defend ourselves because the feminist offensive is, most essentially, a breach of solidarity with us, a disavowel of the obligation to honor the Womens Pact [that religious celibates, professional women, and homemakers respect each other] that women in the movement owed to us. Deborah Tannen have already explored an aspect of differences between males and females in her bestselling book You Just Dont Understand. This book is about how men and women use conversation in different ways. She said that men normally use conversation to build status, whereas women use it to establish closeness. Deborah Tannen does not commit herself to whether it caused of nature or socialization. She does not try to deal with it through moralistic exhortations to abolish it, but simply tries to promote understanding. She thinks that men actually do care about closeness, and women also do actually care about status. Female Leaders in World Throughout the years, there have been lots of woman holding a leader position around the globe. This shows that modernization had brought lots of change in the socialization around the world. Woman is not weak but some of them are bound to the socialization around the place they are born. The first example will be Angela Merkel. She was born on July 17,1954. She is the first female and current Chancellor of Germany. She is the also the president of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) since April 10, 2000. Moreover, she is also the President of the European Council and chairperson of the G8 during 2007.G8 refer to group of eight where it is comprise of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, United Kingdom and United State.G8 duty was to discuss issue of mutual or global concern. Their range of topic include, law enforcement, labor, health, social development, energy, economic, foreign affairs, justice and interior, terrorism and trade. Moreover, in the year 2008, she was awarded the Charlemagne Prize in 2008 for her contribution towards the European Union for the betterment she made. So from her we can see that modernization truly brought change in socialization. It made everyone has the equal chance to be a leader no matter their gender, race, or skin color. Moreover, for Angela Merkel, she is a truly remarkable icon for the female as she dares to stand up for herself and believe in the change she can bring for the society. The second female leader example will be Indira Gandhi who is the prime minister of India for 14 years (3 terms). She was the first female Prime Minister for India. Her father was Jawaharlal Nehru who was the first prime minister of India. She served as her father personal assistant unofficially before becoming the Prime Minister of India. After her father death, she was appointed as member of Rajya Sabha (Upper House) and appointed as the Minister of Information and Broadcasting. Finally with the help of the Congress Party President K. Kamaraj, she is able to win the election and finally won the seat as the Prime Minister of India. Moreover, during the year she led the country as Prime Minister, she had helped India to win a war against Pakistan in 1971 and managed to create the independent Bangladesh. Furthermore, her policy of Garibi Hatao (abolish poverty) was instrumental in her victory as well during the election. So from Indira Gandhi, we can see that even thought she is a wom an, she managed to be a good leader and even managed to lead India to win a war against Pakistan. This clearly show that female is no weak and they can be as good and strong as male. This had proven that male is not the smartest and strongest. So as long as female are given a chance, they might shine and be a good leader as well as a male can. Thus the quote by Vince Lombardi is significant which means Leaders are made and they are not born. They are made by hard effort which is the price that all of us must pay in order to achieve any goal that is worthwhile. Meanwhile in other field besides politic, we do have women who are also a leader. For example is Dr.Faust whose real name is Drew Gilpin Faust is being elected as the first woman president in Harvard University in the year 2007. Moreover, she was also the first dean for the Radcliffe Institute who guides it to change from a college to a wide-ranging institute for advanced study. In sports wise one of the most famous sportswomen is Billie Jean King who is a professional Tennis player who is known for the Battle of the Sexes in 1973. The battle of sexes was between Billie Jean King and Bobby Rigs who is the former Wimbledon mens single champion. As women, Billie Jean King managed to beat down Bobby Rigs and emerged as the victorious. Moreover, King became the first woman who managed to make more than $100,000 a year in tennis and was the Associated Presss Woman Athlete of the Year in 1967 and 1973. She was also the Sports Illustrateds Sportswoman of the year in 1972. Moreover, King is also the founder of the Women Sports Foundation, and the Women Tennis Association. Furthermore, King was also the first openly lesbian major sports figures when she came out in 1981. Besides that, the beating of the Bobby Rigs also helped to change the gender equality issue in sports and all the areas of public life. Thus in the year 2009, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by the President of United State Barrack Obama as her contribution had really helped the world to be a better place. Besides these female leader, there are still lots of female leader who are well known such as Benazir Bhutto who was the first female head of the Muslim country, Rosa Parks the civil right female leader who make racial segregation in United State illegal and Margaret Thatcher who is the Prime Minister in the Britain and manage to end the Cold War. From here we can see that female can also function and work well in the Political Aspect. Furthermore in the aspect of fashion design, we had Melinda Looi who is a purveyor of fine art and vintage chic. She won a scholarship to La Salle School of fashion in Montreal, Canada. In 1995, she was awarded Malaysia Young Designer Award in Kuala Lumpur which was also her graduation collection year. Today, Melinda Looi is one of the influential fashion designers who have also sets her design on her world. In the year 2000, Mellooi Creation was formed. It takes the designers creation to greater horizons while also strengthening the brand. Mellooi Cre ation Sdn Bhd has been formulated to further develop business opportunities in local and international markets. In sum, we can see that these women are important leader who have reached a great height and have change the world to a better place. They are competent, broad-minded, straightforward and efficient. They show out good judgments while being passionate about their vision too. So in future we hope that they will be more female leader out there to guide and bring the world to be a better place. Female Contribution in the Society There is numerous contribution of female in our society today. Without them, we may not be able to achieve what we had today. In medical field, we have the famous Dr. Janet Davidson Rowley, who discovered the first consistent chromosome translocation in a human cancer. Rowley is internationally renowned for her study in chromosome abnormalities in lymphoma and leukemia. Her discovery had led to the dramatically improved rates of survival for the previously incurable cancers and the development of targeted therapies. Besides Dr. Janet, we had Nancy Goodman Brinker who is the founder of Susan G.Komen for the cure. It is the world leading breast cancer grass root organization. The organization helps and invested over 1.3 million for research, health services and education since 1982. They had worked with breast cancer survivor and activist to save lives, ensure quality care, empower people and work hard in science and research to find cures. With her help, they had developed new treatment option and a higher chance of living for the breast cancer patient and long-term survivors. Meanwhile in the engineering or invention section, women had also provided lots of help and contribution. For example we had Mary Jane Montgomery who had made improvements in locomotive wheels in the year 1864 and apparatus for punching corrugated metals in the year 1866. Besides that, Evelyn F. French also helped to invent a sound-deadening attachment for railway cars in the year 1880. Meanwhile, Letitia Geer managed to develop the medical syringes in the year 1899. From here we can see that women also helped out in the engineering and invention section. Conclusion In conclusion, we do not agree with the statement that Male are smarter than female as through our research we found out that there are also female who is smarter and better leader than the male. The reason they cant be a leader is due to the gender discrimination at workplace as there is a Glass Ceiling that is preventing them from advancing. However, over the recent year due to modernization, women are starting to be conscious and know their role. They do not only stay in the house but started to work and fight for the management role with the male. This had clearly showed that modernization had clearly made an impact on socialization by changing the norm of society on how they perceive the female. Moreover, because the change in socialization, the female is starting to be more confident and believe that they too can be a great leader. Female can be a good leader no matter in what field as we can see from Indira Gandhi who led the nation to win against the war with Pakistan. From h ere we can see that female can take up any challenge or work that male may take and some of them may out beat the male. Moreover, over the recent year, more and more female are coming out to contest on political position or the corporation management position. Besides that, modernization is also bringing a stronger democracy where social systems will be more numerous and specialized and competition will be more and more prevalent. This will also make the socialization to change from time to time to follow up with the modern society need and requirement as the society will start to be more and more competitive regardless whether they are female or male.

Reflection on the use of a genogram

Reflection on the use of a genogram Genogram is a graphic display of a persons family traits, relationships and also medical history. They go far away from a traditional family tree as they allow the individual to visualize some hereditary patterns and psychological factors that can interrupt or help relationships. Genograms can also be used to identify recurring patterns of behaviors, choices and identify hereditary tendencies. Normally, genograms will illustrate three generations (Krasner-Khait, 2000). The person can use a variety of lines to indicate relationships and names (see example below). A genogram not only will identify the names of people that belong to the persons family lineage, but also how those people interact with each other. Depends on the reason the person is using the genonogram, he/she may note the date of births, deaths, marriages and in the case of a career, the person might also include family members careers and positions as well. In relation to career counseling, King (2010) stated if a person is not sure which field is right for him/her a genogram may be helpful. Genogram is a diagram, like a family tree, that represents the career positions of family members. It gives the person an idea of the types of jobs he/she may naturally be good at. Genogram can clearly reveal how the family career choices have influenced the persons career preferences. There is no doubt that by identifying the family career choices the person can notice how his/her family members expectations had shaped his/her own career aspirations and decision making. Picture1.png Sample of a career Genogram Brief historical background The origin of the use of the word genogram is still a mystery. The term genogram was first suggested in 1978 by Dr. Murray Bowen to substitute the longer term family diagram. Dr. Bowen started to use the new term genogram during the late 1960s by Bowen System Therapists and by the 1970s it was broadly accepted by the community. As the concept was broadly accepted in the promising field of family medicine, the North American Primary Care Research Group (NAPCRG) undertook the job to standardize the symbols. The person involved in coordinating the standardization during the 1980s was Monica Goldrick (What is a Genogram?, 2011). In 1985 through the publication of a book Genograms: Assessments and Interventions (1985), by Monica Goldrick and Randy Gerson the term was rapidly popularized in clinical settings. Since then the use of genogram has been used by various professional field such as education, medicine, psychiatry, psychology, genetics and many more. Throughout the time, genograms have been used to incorporate observations about medical history and major traits of each member of the family. Genograms have been also used as instruments to uncover intergenerational models of behaviors, family conflicts and alliances, marriages, family secrets, careers, and any other information that will explain the persons familys current situation (What is a Genogram?, 2011). Basic genogram symbols Genograms are graphics that includes simple symbols that gives information about the family member such as gender and it also includes various lines to illustrate the relationships between them. In a genogram males are represented by a square and female by circles. When illustrating a family, a horizontal line is usually connecting the two parents. The children are below from oldest to youngest and from right to left (What is a Genogram?, 2011). GenogramComponent In a genogram the males are represented by a square on the left and female by circles on the right. When developing a standard genogram, there are usually three different types of children; natural or biological, adopted child, and foster child. If there is a triangle, it represents a pregnancy, abortion or miscarriage. If it is a miscarriage, a diagonal cross is drawn on top of the triangle to specify the death of the fetus; in the case of an abortion, the illustration is similar but with an additional horizontal line. A still birth will be demonstrated the same as its a gender, with the difference that the gender symbol is twice as small though the diagonal cross remains the same size (What is a Genogram?, 2011). GenogramComponent In a family relationship, a horizontal line is used to describe the union of two people but also it could change to describe other family relationships such as separation, divorce, engagement, and so on. The following are the most common symbols used in a family genogram: GenogramComponent This is a typical representation of a married couple; there is no special distinction between a religious or civil marriage. GenogramComponent This graphic represent a married couple not longer living together; the separation is displayed by an oblique line across the horizontal line. GenogramComponent This graphic represent a married couple is separated and have started a legal procedure to be divorced. GenogramComponent This graphic represent a married couple has already been divorced. GenogramComponent This graphic represent that one of the spouse died during the marriage. Although there is a universal understanding on the basic genogram structure and the usage of symbols, there have been some variations from time to time or from author to another. According to GenoPro (2010), as long as the person follows the four basic rules to build a genogram, people will be able to understand the work (What is a Genogram?, 2011). Males should be always at the left and females always at the right. In case of ambiguity, always assume a male and female relationship rather that male to male and so on. A spouse should be always being close to his/her partner, then the second and so on. Oldest child should be always at the left and the youngest ant the right of the family. Genograms in counseling strategies According to Gibson (2005), genograms have been applied effectively in career counseling with adults; however it has been limited use in career counseling with elementary, middle and high school students. A career genogram can be used to show how parental expectations and role models influence career aspirations and educational decisions that can be valuable in helping students in reach their goals. The use of genogram in career counseling offer the student and counselor a clear method of assessing and identifying the career patterns in the childs family. The use of family career genoram is a good way to start improving the students career awareness. This exercise will help support communication between the student and the rest of family members as well as to teach different interview and assessment techniques that will eventually help his/her adulthood career development competencies. According to Niles and Harris-Bowlsbey (2008), adults need to develop positive self-concept or competencies that include a precise understanding of their strengths, interests, abilities, and values and how those characteristics may influence their career decisions. Regarding graduates and adults, career genogram is an effective tool to establish career goals. If the person has a specific interest, the genogram will help on narrow down the career choices in a shorter amount of time. Career genogram might also assist in counseling adults in changing career paths. When developed, the genogram most likely will include different types of jobs or career that can be recognized by different family members (King, 2010). According to Magnuson (2004), family genograms are usually used in the perspective of family counseling, provide a discussion for explaining influences and trends that changes over time and across generations. Genograms can be developed mostly to document a range of family dynamics. They also could be designed with a more concise focus, such as discovering the influence of family on an individuals career decision making process. Career genogram might assist in counseling adults by assisting the client to gather vital information for the life planning process. It might also help recognize patterns that can be of assistance in the career choice process. By developing a genogram, the person will learn to identify his/her strengths and possible limitations of his/her future career. Â   Counselors use it to find out a wide range of information about the family that may not be measured or acknowledge with regular questionnaires or interviews. When discussed with the family this process helps clients generate options for change. Several clients have found an increased understanding of their families revealed ideas about career. Other uses of genogram Counseling Genograms are also used in marriage and family counseling as well as in individual therapy to describe chronological and present information. In family and or marriage counseling, it can show emotions attached to marriage or family roles. Families can recognize the values and strengths of their constructive family patterns and discover problem notions in order to stay away from repeating the same negative behaviors in the future. In individual counseling, genogram might point out recurrent episodes that have impacted the persons self-concept in positive or negative ways and assist the person make mindful choices so will develop healthy patterns and decline those that have harm healthy growth and development (Joy, 2010). Medicine Genograms are used in health care to classify or identify illness, disease and at unsafe lifestyles in the families. It can be used to discover and describe heart disease that goes from generations to generations and first and foremost affecting males. Genograms may be utilized to document family history of obesity as well as diabetes. It can be used to show that an illness may be rejected due to certain lifestyle changes. Genograms may also assist physicians recognize illnesses that have a genetic, element such as cystic fibrosis and hemophilia (Joy, 2010). Personal reflection on the use of a genogram Career genogram might assist in counseling adults by assisting the client to gather vital information for the life planning process. It can also help to recognize patterns that can help in the career choice process. By developing a genogram, the person will learn to identify his/her strengths and possible limitations of his/her future career. One of the trends in my family is that our family rules played an important role in forecasting the family members behaviors and beliefs thus career decision making. For example, my family was raised in a healthy and functional environment which made us being more resilient and develops autonomy. Although most of us worked in the bank industry in a certain time of our careers, our beliefs and the way we were raised will certainly have an effect on our career development. It helped us have more flexibility in choosing a career and knowing what we want from a specific career. Not all of the family members went to college and only two of us have gr aduate degrees. As each family member was preparing for his/her professional life, our parents encouraged us to have personal autonomy while remaining related or connected to the family. They never imposed a specific idea or profession as long as we do it with dignity and respect. We had the opportunity to discuss with the family our needs and problems which gave us the support necessary to develop maturity in our career decision process. Another pattern, biases, or diversity found while doing a career genogram is that each one of us chose a different career path but all of them are involved in helping or assisting others. Although I am the only one in between my brothers and sisters currently working in the mental health field, there are already members of the next generation (nephews, nieces and cousins) showing interest in the field as well. One of this writer future goals is to have a private practice or own business which is a common trend as few of my family members have already been entrepreneurs or business owners. Career counseling helps the client build high motivational level by understanding the persons professional needs and wants. Genogram is an important tool in career counseling process as it helps with various aspects of personal insight, support and greater understanding based on family history. Along with other interventions, genogram help the counselor achieve one of the ultimate goals of career counseling which is to ensure that every client set goals and give his/her best in reaching them while understanding his/her strengths and values not to only enhance his/her work skills but to reveal the persons hidden ingenuity.